Precision photonic oscillator and method for generating an ultra-stable frequency reference using a two-photon rubidium transition

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of an ultra-stable frequency reference generating system and methods for generating an ultra-stable frequency reference using a two-photon Rubidium transition are generally described herein. In some embodiments, a cavity-stabilized reference laser comprising a laser source is locked to a stabilized cavity. A Rubidium cell is interrogated by a stabilized laser output to cause at least a two-photon Rubidium transition and a detector may detect fluorescence resulting from spontaneous decay of the upper state Rubidium transition. The output of the detector is provided at a wavelength of the fluorescence to lock the cavity-stabilized reference laser to generate a stabilized laser output. A frequency comb stabilizer may be locked to the stabilized laser output to generate a super-continuum of optical wavelengths for use in generating an ultra-stable frequency reference.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY

This patent application is a continuation of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 13/400,348 entitled “PRECISION PHOTONIC OSCILLATOR AND METHODFOR GENERATING AN ULTRA-STABLE FREQUENCY REFERENCE USING A TWO-PHOTONRUBIDIUM TRANSITION” filed Feb. 20, 2012, the entire contents of whichare hereby incorporated in its entirety.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was not made with United States Government support. TheUnited States Government does not have certain rights in this invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Embodiments pertain to precisions oscillators and the generation ofultra-stable frequency references. Some embodiments relate to photonicoscillators. Some embodiments relate to frequency reference generationand communication systems. Some embodiments relate to low-phase noiseultra-stable oscillators for radar systems and airborne systems.

BACKGROUND

One issue with many conventional frequency references is stability.Conventional techniques for reaching frequency stabilities (i.e., Δf/f)in the range of 10⁻¹⁴ or better use cryogenically cooled crystaloscillators, cesium fountain clocks, and/or highly stabilized opticalclocks. Many of these conventional frequency references are notattractive due to their large size, weight, complexity and/or powerconsumption.

Thus, there are general needs for improved precision oscillators andmethods for generating ultra-stable frequency references. There are alsogeneral needs for precision oscillators and methods for generatingultra-stable frequency references that are less complex than manyconventional systems. There are also needs for low-phase noise andultra-stable oscillators that are suitable for use in radar systems,communication systems and signal-collection systems. There are alsoneeds for ultra-stable oscillators for use in systems that requiresynchronization. There are also needs for ultra-stable oscillatorssuitable for use in difficult EMI environments. There are also needs foran ultra-stable frequency reference that can provide a frequencystability that exceeds 10⁻¹⁴.

SUMMARY

In some embodiments, an ultra-stable frequency reference generatingsystem include a cavity-stabilized reference laser comprising a lasersource locked to a stabilized cavity to generate a stabilized laseroutput, a Rubidium cell configured to be interrogated by the stabilizedlaser output to cause at least a two-photon Rubidium transition, and adetector to detect fluorescence resulting from the spontaneous decay ofthis upper state Rubidium transition. The detector may provide an outputat the wavelength of the fluorescence to lock the cavity-stabilizedreference laser to generate a stabilized laser output. A frequency combstabilizer may be included to lock to the stabilized laser output togenerate a super-continuum of optical wavelengths for use in generatingan ultra-stable frequency reference covering a broad spectral range.

In some embodiments, an ultra-stable frequency reference generatingsystem is provided that includes a cavity lock loop to lock a lasersource to a stabilized cavity and generate a pre-stabilized laser outputand a frequency control loop to further lock the laser source to a decayof an upper state Rubidium transition using two photon excitation togenerate a stabilized laser output. The system may also include afrequency comb stabilizer having a first frequency comb stabilizercontrol loop to stabilize a frequency comb relative to zero frequencyand a second frequency comb stabilizer control loop to stabilize thefrequency comb spacing. The frequency comb may be a femtosecondfrequency comb.

In some embodiments, a method to generate an ultra-stable frequencyreference is provided. In these embodiments, a laser source is locked toa stabilized cavity to generate a pre-stabilized laser output. The lasersource is further locked to the decay of a two-photon Rubidiumtransition to generate a stabilized laser output. A frequency combstabilizer is locked to the stabilized laser output to generate anoptical output for use in generating an ultra-stable frequencyreference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The claims are directed to some of the various embodiments disclosedherein. However, the detailed description presents a more completeunderstanding of the various embodiments when considered in connectionwith the figures, wherein like reference numbers refer to similar itemsthroughout the figures.

FIG. 1 is a functional diagram of an ultra-stable frequency referencegenerating system in accordance with some embodiments;

FIG. 2A illustrates Rubidium transitions in accordance with someembodiments;

FIG. 2B illustrates a sample spectrum of hyperfine transitions that maybe used as frequency references in accordance with some embodiments;

FIG. 3 illustrates a frequency control loop for an ultra-stablefrequency reference generating system in accordance with someembodiments;

FIG. 4 illustrates a cavity lock loop for an ultra-stable frequencyreference generating system in accordance with some embodiments;

FIG. 5 illustrates a frequency comb stabilizer for an ultra-stablefrequency reference generating system in accordance with someembodiments; and

FIG. 6 is a procedure for generating an ultra-stable frequency referencein accordance with some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description and the drawings sufficiently illustratespecific embodiments to enable those skilled in the art to practicethem. Other embodiments may incorporate structural, logical, electrical,process, and other changes. Portions and features of some embodimentsmay be included in, or substituted for, those of other embodiments.Embodiments set forth in the claims encompass all available equivalentsof those claims.

FIG. 1 is a functional diagram of an ultra-stable frequency referencegenerating system in accordance with some embodiments. Ultra-stablefrequency reference generating system 100 may be configured to generatean ultra-stable frequency reference 117 having a frequency stabilityexceeding 5×10⁻¹⁴. In some embodiments, the ultra-stable frequencyreference generating system 100 may generate an ultra-stable frequencyreference 117 having a frequency stability on the order of and possiblyexceeding 10⁻¹⁵, although the scope of the embodiments is not limited inthis respect.

Frequency stability, as used herein, refers generally to frequencyvariation at one second or with a one second averaging. A frequencystability of 10⁻¹⁵, for example, refers to the standard deviation of aseries of frequency measurements within a one second averaging time permeasurement.

In some embodiments, the ultra-stable frequency reference generatingsystem 100 may include a cavity-stabilized reference laser 112 thatincludes a laser source 102 locked to a stabilized cavity 104. Thesystem 100 may also include a Rubidium (Rb) cell 108 that may beinterrogated by a stabilized laser output 105 of the cavity-stabilizedreference laser 112 which may cause at least a two-photon Rubidiumtransition (to an upper state) within the Rubidium cell 108. A detector110 may detect fluorescence 109 within the Rubidium cell 108 resultingfrom the spontaneous decay of the upper state Rubidium transition. Inthese embodiments, the detector 110 may provide a detector output 111 ata wavelength of the fluorescence to lock the cavity-stabilized referencelaser 112 to generate a stabilized laser output 113. In theseembodiments, the laser source 102 is locking to both the stabilizedcavity 104 and the Rubidium transition within the Rubidium cell 108.

In some embodiments, the ultra-stable frequency reference generatingsystem 100 may also include a frequency doubler 106 to double thefrequency of the stabilized laser output 105. The doubled stabilizedlaser output 107 may be configured to interrogate the Rubidium cell 108to generate an output for use in locking the laser source 102 to theRubidium transition.

The ultra-stable frequency reference generating system 100 may alsoinclude a frequency comb stabilizer 114, which may be locked to thestabilized laser output 113. The frequency comb stabilizer 114 maygenerate an output of optical wavelengths which may comprise asuper-continuum 115 of optical wavelengths. The super-continuum 115 maybe an octave span of wavelengths, although the scope of the embodimentsis not limited in this respect. In some embodiments, the spacing betweenthe optical comb teeth may be determined by a femto second laser pulserepetition frequency of a femto second laser that may be used togenerate the frequency comb.

In some embodiments, the ultra-stable frequency reference generatingsystem 100 may also include RF generating circuitry 116 to generate theultra-stable frequency reference 117 from the super-continuum 115 ofoptical wavelengths. The ultra-stable frequency reference 117 maycomprise one or more ultra-stable RF or microwave output signals,although the scope of the embodiments is not limited in this respect.The RF generating circuitry 116 may include, among other things, a photodetector to convert the super-continuum 115 of optical wavelengths tothe ultra-stable frequency reference 117. In some embodiments, theultra-stable frequency reference 117 may comprise a set of RF ormicrowave signals.

In some embodiments, the frequency comb stabilizer 114 may include,among other things, a fiber pump, an f-2f locking interferometer and afiber-based frequency comb (i.e., a fiber comb). The fiber-basedfrequency comb may include non-linear fiber to generate thesuper-continuum 115 of optical wavelengths. In some embodiments, thefrequency comb stabilizer 114 includes a first control loop to stabilizethe frequency comb relative to zero frequency and a second control loopto stabilize the frequency comb spacing. These embodiments are discussedin more detail below.

In some embodiments, the Rubidium cell 108 may be a Rubidium vapor cellcomprising various isotopes of Rubidium such as Rubidium 85 and Rubidium87 although the scope of the embodiments is not limited in this respect.In these embodiments, the Rubidium vapor cell is interrogated(illuminated by an optical source) to cause photon excitation.

As illustrated in FIG. 1, two complementary lock loops may be used togenerate the stabilized laser output 113. A cavity-lock loop 121 maylock the laser source 102 to the stabilized cavity 104. The cavity-lockloop 121 may help short-term phase noise performance of the system 100.A frequency control loop 123 may lock the laser source 102 to theRubidium transition within the Rubidium cell 108. The frequency controlloop 123 may help reduce long-term environmental drift to help achievelonger-term stability. In these embodiments, the frequency control loop123 may lock the laser source to a decay of an upper state Rubidiumtransition using two-photon excitation to generate the stabilized laseroutput.

In these embodiments, by locking the laser source 102 to a stabilizedcavity 104, variation of the laser frequency of the cavity-stabilizedreference laser 112 may be reduced. By locking the output of thecavity-stabilized reference laser 112 to an atomic transition (i.e., atwo-photon Rubidium transition), the variation of the laser frequency isfurther reduced. Without the use of any locking loops, the frequency ofthe laser output may drift by several MHz over the course of a fewminutes. Locking to the stabilized cavity 104 may reduce this driftsubstantially (e.g., by almost a million times or more). Locking to thetwo-photon Rubidium transition may remove any slow drift that remains.Accordingly, frequency fluctuations and drifts have been removed or atleast largely reduced so that the output 113 is considered stabilized.

System 100 may provide significant improvement in long-term stabilityand phase noise is achieved over many conventional systems. For example,the ultra-stable frequency reference 117 generated by the ultra-stablefrequency reference generating system 100 may have a frequency stabilityof at least 5×10⁻¹⁴ or greater, and may even have a frequency stabilityexceeding 5×10⁻¹⁵, although the scope of the embodiments is not limitedin this respect. The ultra-stable frequency reference 117 may furtherhave a phase noise of less than −100 dBc/Hz at one Hz off a 10 GHzcarrier, for example.

The ultra-stable frequency reference generating system 100 may beimplemented as a chip-scale frequency reference and may provide betterperformance than many conventional crystal oscillators currently in usein small, inexpensive devices such as handheld GPS receivers. In someembodiments, the ultra-stable frequency reference generating system 100may be implemented a package suitable for integration into a spacecraftor airborne system.

The ultra-stable frequency reference generating system 100 may be alsosuitable for use in radar systems, communication systems andsignal-collection systems. The ultra-stable frequency referencegenerating system 100 may also be suitable for use in systems thatrequire synchronization. The ultra-stable frequency reference generatingsystem 100 may also be suitable for use in difficult EMI environments.

Although the ultra-stable frequency reference generating system 100 isillustrated in FIG. 1 as having several separate functional elements,one or more of the functional elements may be combined and may beimplemented by combinations of hardware elements and software-configuredelements, such as processing elements including digital signalprocessors (DSPs), and/or other hardware elements. For example, someelements may comprise one or more microprocessors, DSPs, applicationspecific integrated circuits (ASICs), radio-frequency integratedcircuits (RFICs) and combinations of various hardware and logiccircuitry for performing at least the functions described herein. Insome embodiments, the functional elements of the ultra-stable frequencyreference generating system 100 may refer to one or more processesoperating on one or more processing elements.

FIG. 2A illustrates Rubidium transitions in accordance with someembodiments. As discussed above, interrogation of the Rubidium cell 108(FIG. 1) by the stabilized laser output 107 (FIG. 1) may cause at leasta two-photon Rubidium transition 203. The two-photon Rubidium transition203 may be a two-photon Rubidium transition from the 5s state 202 to the5d state 204 as illustrated. A spontaneous decay from the 6p state 206to the 5s state 202, shown as decay transition 207, may result influorescence that may be detected by detector 110 (FIG. 1). The excitedatoms spontaneously decay from an upper state (e.g., state 206) to alower state (e.g., state 202) emitting a fluorescence at a precisewavelength.

In these embodiments, the two-photon Rubidium transition 203 from the 5sstate 202 to the 5d state 204 may be at wavelength of precisely 778.1nm. The decay transition 207 and the detected fluorescence 109 (FIG. 1)may be at a wavelength of precisely 420.2 nm. In these embodiments, thedetector output 111 (FIG. 1) may be at the wavelength of the decaytransition 207 (e.g., 420.2 nm) and may be used to further lock thecavity-stabilized reference laser 112 (FIG. 1) to generate thestabilized laser output 113 (FIG. 1). In these embodiments, the detector110 may be selected to be sensitive to the wavelength of the decaytransition 207.

In some example embodiments, the laser source 102 may be a 1556 nm fiberlaser that generates a 1556 nm wavelength. When halved by the wavelengthdivider 106 (FIG. 1), a 778 nm wavelength may be produced which may beused to cause the two-photon transition 203 within the Rubidium cell108. In these example embodiments, the 1556 nm fiber laser is used sincethe two-photon Rubidium transition 203 occurs at precisely 778 nm, whichis precisely half of the 1556 nm wavelength. Other laser source andwavelength divider/multiplier combinations may also be used to generatea 778 nm wavelength to cause the two-photon Rubidium transition 203. Insome embodiments, the wavelength divider 106 may comprise non-linearoptics to convert the 1556 nm wavelength to a 778 nm wavelength,although this is not a requirement.

FIG. 2A also illustrates hyperfine splitting 212 for Rubidium 85 andhyperfine splitting 214 for Rubidium 87. This hyperfine splittingresults in different transitions and may occur for the 5s state 202 andthe 5d state 205 as shown. In accordance with some embodiments, thestrongest transition in one of the isotopes of Rubidium may be used forstabilization.

In some embodiments, the stabilized cavity 104 (FIG. 1) may be adimensionally-stable optical cavity and may be an ultra-low expansion(ULE) glass Fabry-Perot cavity, although this is not a requirement. Theoutput of the laser source 102 may be pre-stabilized to the opticalcavity using a Pound-Drever-Hall (PDH) stabilization technique. Thispre-stabilization may improve the short term stability of theultra-stable frequency reference generating system 100. In an exampleembodiment, a Fabry Perot cavity may be used that has length of 7.75 cmand a high finesse of greater than or equal to 150,000. In someembodiments, a notched mount cavity with finesse of 10,000 may be used,while in other embodiments, a mid-plane mount cavity with finesse of150,000 may be used. Although pre-stabilizing the laser source 102 to ahigh finesse cavity improves its short term frequency stability, atlonger times thermal drift of the cavity length may cause unwantedfrequency wander. This frequency wander may be removed by locking thefrequency of the laser source 102 to the time invariant two-photonRubidium transition.

FIG. 2B illustrates a sample spectrum of hyperfine transitions that maybe used as frequency references in accordance with some embodiments. Thesample spectrum of the 5S_(1/2)(F=2)→5D5/2(F=4, 3, 2, 1) hyperfinetransitions is shown, which includes a spectra of transitions from the5S_(1/2) ground state into the 5D_(5/2) excited state. The spectra aretransitions in ⁸⁷Rb from the hyperfine ground state F=2 to the hyperfineexcited states (from the left) F=4, F=3, F=2 and F=1 are also shown.

FIG. 3 illustrates a frequency control loop for an ultra-stablefrequency reference generating system in accordance with someembodiments. Frequency control loop 300 may be suitable for use asfrequency control loop 123 (FIG. 1) to lock the laser source 102(FIG. 1) to the Rubidium transition 207 (FIG. 2A).

In addition to laser source 102, the wavelength divider 106, theRubidium cell 108 and the detector 110 previously discussed, thefrequency control loop 300 may include a modulator such as anacousto-optic modulator (AOM) 312 to modulate the stabilized laseroutput 105. The frequency control loop 300 may also include an amplifiersuch as an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) 314 to amplify themodulated output of the AOM 312 prior to coupler 125 which coupleswavelengths to the frequency comb stabilizer 114 (FIG. 1). The frequencycontrol loop 300 may also include a lock-in amplifier 316 and aproportional integral derivate (PID) controller 318 to operate on theoutput signal 111 from the detector and generate an error signal 319 forfrequency control of the laser source 102. An FM source 322 may providean FM signal to the AOM 312 and may be modulated by frequency modulator324 that may be used provide a dither on the error signal 319 for thefrequency control of the laser source 102. To generate the error signal319 used to lock the pre-stabilized reference laser to the frequency ofthe two-photon resonance in Rubidium, the probe beam may be frequencydithered and the resulting fluorescence may be demodulated using thelock-in amplifier 316. In some embodiments, the detector 110 maycomprise a photo-multiplier tube (PMT).

FIG. 4 illustrates a cavity lock loop for an ultra-stable frequencyreference generating system in accordance with some embodiments. Cavitylock loop 400 may be suitable for use as cavity lock loop 121 (FIG. 1)to lock the laser source 102 to the cavity 104. The use of cavity lockloop 400 may help achieve improved short-term phase noise performance.

The cavity lock loop 400 may include an AOM 412 to compensate for anyfrequency offset of the stabilized cavity 104 and a tap coupler 127 tocouple the stabilized laser output 105 to AOM 312 (FIG. 3). The cavitylock loop 400 may also include a phase modulator 414, a circulator 416,a fast photodiode 418, a mixer 420 and a filter and PID element 422arranged in a feedback loop to provide a feedback signal 423 to thelaser source 102. In some embodiments, the feedback signal 423 may beprovided to a piezo input of the laser source 102 which controls apiezo-actuated mirror.

In some example embodiments, the stabilized cavity 104 may include a ULEcavity 430 that may be provided within a vacuum enclosure 432. Thestabilized cavity 104 may also include acoustic and vibration isolation,although these are not requirements as other techniques for cavitystabilization may be used.

FIG. 5 illustrates a frequency comb stabilizer for an ultra-stablefrequency reference generating system in accordance with someembodiments. The frequency comb stabilizer 500 may be suitable for usewithin the frequency comb stabilizer 114 (FIG. 1) of ultra-stablefrequency reference generating system 100 (FIG. 1), although otherconfigurations may also be suitable. The frequency comb stabilizer 500may generate the super-continuum 115 from the stabilized laser output113 (FIG. 1). In some embodiments, the super-continuum 115 may, forexample, comprise at least an octave span of wavelengths.

As illustrated in FIG. 5, the frequency comb stabilizer 500 includes afirst frequency comb stabilizer control loop 503 to stabilize thefrequency comb relative to zero frequency, and a second frequency combstabilizer control loop 505 to stabilize the frequency comb spacing.

The frequency comb stabilizer 500 may include a fiber-based frequencycomb 502 that includes a non-linear fiber to generate thesuper-continuum 115 of optical wavelengths. An interferometer, such asf-2f interferometer 508, may generate a beat tone from thesuper-continuum 115 for mixing with an output of a waveform generator510 to provide an input to PID controller 518 to generate acarrier-envelope offset (CEO) frequency as feedback 519 to thefiber-based frequency comb 502 as part of control loop 503.

Control loop 505 may include a 50-50 coupler 512 to combine thestabilized laser output 113 (FIG. 1) with an output of the fiber comb502 to generate an RF beat tone which may be mixed with an output from awaveform generator 514 to provide an input to PID controller 516. ThePID controller 516 may generate feedback for the fiber comb 502. In someembodiments, a fiber-brag grating (FBG) 504 and a circulator 506 may beincluded in control loop 505 to filter the optical signal and reducedetection noise.

Referring back to FIG. 1, in some embodiments, in addition to a photodetector, the RF generating circuitry 116 may also include a microwavefrequency comb to generate multiple microwave signals from the output ofthe photo-detector. These multiple microwave signals may comprise a setof clock or reference signals and may have a stability approximating thestability of the stabilized laser output 113 (e.g., on the order of5×10⁻¹⁵ to 5×10⁻¹⁴ at a one-second average). The multiple microwavesignals may correspond to the ultra-stable frequency reference 117 (FIG.1). In these embodiments, the set of clock or reference signals may besuitable for use as clock signals in a system that uses multiple clocksignals having a common reference, although the scope of the embodimentsis not limited in this respect. In some embodiments, a set of opticalreference signals may be generated which may be used to lock otherlasers and/or may be used as a reference for optical sensors.

FIG. 6 is a procedure for generating an ultra-stable frequency referencein accordance with some embodiments. Procedure 600 may be performed byan ultra-stable frequency reference generating system, such asultra-stable frequency reference generating system 100 (FIG. 1),although other ultra-stable frequency reference generating systems mayalso be suitable for use in implementing procedure 600.

Operation 602 comprises locking a laser source to a stabilized cavity togenerate a pre-stabilized laser output. In some embodiments, thecomponents of cavity-lock loop 121 (FIG. 1) may be used.

Operation 604 comprises interrogating a Rubidium cell with thepre-stabilized laser output to cause at least a two-photon Rubidiumtransition. In some embodiments, the two-photon Rubidium transition 203(FIG. 2A) may result from interrogation of the Rubidium cell 108(FIG. 1) with a 778.1 nm wavelength.

Operation 606 comprises detecting fluorescence resulting from thespontaneous decay of the two-photon Rubidium transition to provide anoutput at a wavelength of the fluorescence. The fluorescence may resultfrom the decay transition 207 (FIG. 2A).

Operation 608 comprises locking the cavity-stabilized reference laser tothe output of the detected fluorescence generate a stabilized laseroutput. In some embodiments, the components of the frequency controlloop 123 (FIG. 1) may be used.

Operation 610 comprises locking a frequency comb stabilizer to thestabilized laser output to generate a super-continuum of opticalwavelengths. Operation 610 may, for example, be performed by frequencycomb stabilizer 114 (FIG. 1).

Operation 612 comprises generating an ultra-stable frequency referencefrom the super-continuum of optical wavelengths. Operation 612 may, forexample, be performed by RF generation circuitry 116 (FIG. 1).

In some embodiments, system 100 (FIG. 1) may comprise a photonicoscillator that is referenced to an atomic resonance (i.e., the Rubidiumtransition). The frequency stability of an oscillator (Δf/f) that isreferenced to an atomic resonance may be fundamentally limited by boththe measured Q of the two-photon transition and the signal to noiseratio (SNR) based on the following equation.

$\frac{\Delta\; f}{f} = \frac{1}{Q*{SNR}*\left. \sqrt{}\tau \right.}$

Q may be defined as the frequency of the transition divided by themeasured linewidth of the transition (v/Δv) and τ is the averaging time.The measured linewidth may exceed the natural linewidth due to a varietyof broadening mechanisms. To minimize broadening, magnetic shielding maybe provided around the rubidium cell 108. This may greatly reduce Zeemanbroadening resulting in a measured linewidth near the natural width of350 kHz. In order to increase the signal to noise level, thefluorescence detection may be operated in a shot-noise limited regimewhich may be achieved by collecting a sizable portion of the 420.2 nmfluorescence, maximizing the frequency doubling process to 778 nm,optimizing the detector for 420.2 nm operation, eliminating stray light,minimizing detector noise such as Johnson noise and operating a clockwith a high Rb vapor pressure. The natural linewidth limited Q of thetwo-photon transition is Q=2.6×10⁹ and with a practical SNR of 15000 thesystem stability may be approximately 2.3×10⁻¹⁴ in 1 second andapproaching 10⁻¹⁵ with less than two minutes of integration. Totranslate this stability into the microwave/RF domain, the system 100may utilize a compact means to divide down from the optical domain. Thismay be accomplished using a femto second laser based frequency comb incircuitry 116 (FIG. 1). To transfer the stability from optical to themicrowave, the femtosecond frequency comb may be locked to the cavitystabilized laser 112.

The process for stabilizing the fiber-based frequency comb 502 (FIG. 5)to an externally-stabilized reference laser (i.e., laser output 113), asshown in FIG. 5 as the frequency comb stabilizer 500 in which anenvelope offset (CEO) stabilization is used. Control loop stabilizes 503the frequency comb relative to zero frequency. The super-continuum 115may be generated within the frequency comb 502 through a highlynonlinear fiber. The super-continuum 115 may fulfill an octave spanningto generate a beat tone between a fundamental portion of the spectrumand the second harmonic of the octave of the fundamental represents thefrequency comb offset from zero. This tone is subsequently mixed in adigital phase detector with an RF tone generated from a disciplinedarbitrary waveform generator (AWG) 510. The mixed down signal is feedinto PID controller 518 which adjusts the pump power to mode-locked thefiber-based frequency comb 502.

The other control loop 505 may stabilize the frequency comb spacing.This may be achieved by stabilizing the cavity length of the mode-lockedfiber-based frequency comb. In an example embodiment, the spectrum maybe initially narrowed from approximately 100 nm to 0.1 nm through theFBG 504, whose center wave is equal to that of the cavity stabilizedlaser. This narrowing process may limit the shot noise on the photodetector, which generates the RF beat tone used to stabilize thefrequency comb. After narrowing, the frequency comb is coupled with thecavity stabilized laser using the 50-50 coupler 512 which results in anRF beat tone signifying the frequency difference between the comb lineand cavity stabilized laser. The RF beat tone may be generated by anInGaAs photo detector, which may be part of the 50-50 coupler 512. Theresulting RF signal may be mixed against a second disciplined AWG 514 ina digital phase detector. The digital phase detector may be capable ofgenerating an error signal over thirty radians of phase excursions,which allows 10× more phase excursions compared to using an analog mixeras a phase detector. The output from the digital phase detector isrouted to the PID controller 516, which generates the error signal forthe comb spacing feedback. In some embodiments, the error signal maycontrol a piezo-actuated mirror inside the fiber-based frequency combwith approximately 10 kHz of bandwidth.

Embodiments may be implemented in one or a combination of hardware,firmware and software. Embodiments may also be implemented asinstructions stored on a computer-readable storage device, which may beread and executed by at least one processor to perform the operationsdescribed herein. A computer-readable storage device may include anynon-transitory mechanism for storing information in a form readable by amachine (e.g., a computer). For example, a computer-readable storagedevice may include read-only memory (ROM), random-access memory (RAM),magnetic disk storage media, optical storage media, flash-memorydevices, and other storage devices and media. Some embodiments may beimplemented with one or more processors and may be configured withinstructions stored on a computer-readable storage device.

The Abstract is provided to comply with 37 C.F.R. Section 1.72(b)requiring an abstract that will allow the reader to ascertain the natureand gist of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with theunderstanding that it will not be used to limit or interpret the scopeor meaning of the claims. The following claims are hereby incorporatedinto the detailed description, with each claim standing on its own as aseparate embodiment.

What is claimed is:
 1. An optical system, comprising: a frequencydoubler configured to receive a stabilized laser output, and double afrequency of the stabilized laser output to form a frequency-doubledstabilized laser output; a Rubidium cell configured to be interrogatedby the frequency-doubled stabilized laser output to cause at least atwo-photon Rubidium transition; a detector configured to detectfluorescence resulting from spontaneous decay of the Rubidiumtransition.
 2. The optical system of claim 1, further comprising: alaser source configured to generate the stabilized laser output; whereinthe laser source is locked to a stabilized cavity.
 3. The optical systemof claim 2, wherein the stabilized cavity is a dimensionally-stableoptical cavity and comprises an ultra-low expansion (ULE) glassFabry-Perot cavity, and wherein an output of the laser source ispre-stabilized to the optical cavity using a Pound-Drever-Hallstabilization technique.
 4. The optical system of claim 1, furthercomprising a frequency comb stabilizer locked to the stabilized laseroutput to generate an optical output for use in generating anultra-stable frequency reference.
 5. The optical system of claim 4,wherein the frequency comb stabilizer includes: a frequency comb; afirst control loop to stabilize the frequency comb relative to zerofrequency; and a second control loop to stabilize a frequency combspacing of the frequency comb.
 6. The optical system of claim 5, whereinthe frequency comb comprises a fiber-based frequency comb that includesa non-linear fiber, and wherein the fiber-based frequency comb is togenerate a super-continuum of optical wavelengths comprising at least anoctave span.
 7. The optical system of claim 4, wherein the frequencycomb stabilizer is locked to the stabilized laser output to generate asuper-continuum of optical wavelengths for use in generating theultra-stable frequency reference, and wherein the detector is configuredto provide a detector output at a wavelength of the fluorescence to lockthe laser source to generate the stabilized laser output.
 8. The opticalsystem of claim 7, further comprising RF generating circuitry togenerate the ultra-stable frequency reference from the super-continuumof optical wavelengths, the ultra-stable frequency reference comprisingone or more ultra-stable microwave or RF output signals.
 9. The opticalsystem of claim 8, wherein the RF generating circuitry comprises: aphoto-detector to convert the super-continuum of optical wavelengths toa set of microwave signals; and a microwave frequency comb to generate aset of microwave clock or reference signals from the output of thephoto-detector, the set of microwave clock or reference signals having astability approximating a stability of the stabilized laser output. 10.The optical system of claim 7, further comprising optical referencesignal generating circuitry to convert the super-continuum of opticalwavelengths to a set of optical reference signals.
 11. The opticalsystem of claim 1, wherein the two-photon Rubidium transition is atwo-photon Rubidium transition from a 5s state to a 5d state; whereinthe detected fluorescence results from the spontaneous decay from a 6pstate to the 5s state; and wherein the Rubidium cell is a Rubidium vaporcell comprising Rubidium
 87. 12. A method for generating an ultra-stablefrequency reference comprising: locking a laser source to a stabilizedcavity to generate a pre-stabilized laser output; further locking thelaser source to a decay of a two-photon Rubidium transition to generatea stabilized laser output; and doubling a frequency of the stabilizedlaser output to generate a frequency-doubled stabilized laser output.13. The method of claim 12, further comprising locking a frequency combstabilizer to the frequency-doubled stabilized laser output to generatean optical output for use in generating an ultra-stable frequencyreference.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein locking the frequencycomb stabilizer to the stabilized laser output generates asuper-continuum of optical wavelengths, and wherein the method furthercomprises generating the ultra-stable frequency reference from thesuper-continuum.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the frequency combstabilizer comprises a fiber-based frequency comb that includes anon-linear fiber, and wherein the method comprises generating thesuper-continuum of optical wavelengths comprising at least an octavespan with the fiber-based frequency comb.
 16. The method of claim 12,further comprising: interrogating a Rubidium cell with thepre-stabilized laser output to cause at least the two-photon Rubidiumtransition to an upper state; and detecting fluorescence resulting fromspontaneous decay of the upper state Rubidium transition to provide adetected output at a wavelength of the fluorescence for use in furtherlocking the laser source.
 17. An optical system, comprising: acavity-stabilized reference laser configured to produce a stabilizedlaser output; a frequency doubler configured to double a frequency ofthe stabilized laser output to form a frequency-doubled stabilized laseroutput; a Rubidium cell configured to receive the frequency-doubledstabilized laser output and produce fluorescence; and a detectorpositioned to detect the fluorescence.
 18. The optical system of claim17, wherein the cavity-stabilized reference laser comprises a lasersource locked to a stabilized cavity; wherein the detector directs adetector output to the laser source to lock the cavity-stabilizedreference laser.
 19. The optical system of claim 17, further comprising:a frequency comb stabilizer locked to the stabilized laser output andconfigured to produce a super-continuum of optical wavelengths; and RFgenerating circuitry configured to receive the super-continuum ofoptical wavelengths and generate an ultra-stable frequency reference.